The short answer
Catholics claim that in the Eucharist the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The appearances of bread and wine remain. What is given is Christ himself, whole and entire. The Mass makes his one sacrifice present. It does not repeat Calvary.
Jesus says the bread he will give is his flesh for the life of the world, and that whoever eats his flesh and drinks his blood has eternal life (John 6:51–58). When many disciples leave, he does not take the words back. At the Supper he says, “This is my body.” Paul warns that an unworthy reception sins against the body and blood of the Lord (1 Corinthians 11:23–29).
Ignatius of Antioch, early in the second century, calls the Eucharist the flesh of Christ and treats a denial of that as a break with the Church. A merely symbolic reading has to explain the walkout in John 6 and Paul’s language of guilt against a body. Reformed and Lutheran Christians raise harder objections than a bare symbol. Those cases, and the Catholic replies, are further down the page.
The Catholic claim
In the Eucharist, Jesus Christ is truly, really, and substantially present—Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity—under the appearances of bread and wine. What the senses register does not change: it still looks, tastes, and weighs like bread and wine. What the thing most deeply is has changed. The whole Christ is present under each species and in every particle, which is why a Catholic who receives only the host receives the entire Lord, and why the Church reserves the Blessed Sacrament in the tabernacle and adores it there.
The Mass is not a second sacrifice added to Calvary, and it does not repeat what Christ finished once for all. It makes his one sacrifice present under sacramental signs, offered now without the shedding of blood, so that Christians of every century can stand at the foot of the same cross. Communion is the meal of that sacrifice. The Church therefore asks those who approach to be in the state of grace, because Scripture itself treats unworthy reception as a serious matter and not a private preference (1 Corinthians 11:27–29; CCC 1385).
“The mode of Christ's presence under the Eucharistic species is unique. It raises the Eucharist above all the sacraments as "the perfection of the spiritual life and the end to which all the sacraments tend." In the most blessed sacrament of…”
Presence
“The Council of Trent summarizes the Catholic faith by declaring: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the conviction of the Church of God,…”
Change
Biblical evidence
In John 6 Jesus does not soften his words when they cost him disciples. He says his flesh is true food and his blood true drink (John 6:51–58). When the crowd objects that this is a hard saying, he sharpens the language rather than explaining it away: he moves from ordinary eating to the stronger verbs of chewing his flesh. When many walk away he lets them go and asks the Twelve whether they will leave too. A speaker who meant only a metaphor could have kept the crowd with one clarifying sentence.
At the Last Supper he takes bread and says, plainly, this is my body, and over the cup, this is my blood of the covenant, poured out for many (Matthew 26:26–28). Paul hands the same words on as something he received from the Lord (1 Corinthians 11:23–26), and he draws a conclusion from them: the cup of blessing is a participation in the blood of Christ, and the bread we break a participation in his body. Sharing one bread is what makes many people one body (1 Corinthians 10:16–17).
The clearest argument is in 1 Corinthians 11. Paul warns that whoever eats the bread or drinks the cup unworthily is guilty of profaning the body and blood of the Lord, and says that some at Corinth have become weak and ill because they failed to discern the body (1 Corinthians 11:27–29). No one profanes a symbol, and no one falls under judgment for misreading a metaphor. Paul reasons as though the Lord himself were handled at that table, because he believed he was.
- John 6:51-58
“Most certainly I tell you, unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you don’t have life in yourselves.”
- Matthew 26:26-28
“As they were eating, Jesus took bread, gave thanks for it, and broke it. He gave to the disciples, and said, “Take, eat;”
- 1 Corinthians 10:16-17
“The cup of blessing which we bless, isn’t it a sharing of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break,”
- 1 Corinthians 11:23-26
“For I received from the Lord that which also I delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night in which he was betrayed took bread.”
- 1 Corinthians 11:27-29
“Therefore whoever eats this bread or drinks the Lord’s cup in a way unworthy of the Lord will be guilty of the body and the blood of the Lord.”
“The cup of blessing which we bless, isn’t it a sharing of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break,”
Scripture
“For I received from the Lord that which also I delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night in which he was betrayed took bread.”
Scripture
The supper and the cross
The Passover meal, as the Mishnah records it about A.D. 200, includes four cups of wine. Jewish tradition ties those cups to four verbs in Exodus 6:6–7: bring out, deliver, redeem, and take you as my people. The Gospels do not count the cups. They do show how Jesus ends the meal. He takes the cup after supper and calls it the new covenant in his blood (Luke 22:20). Then he says he will not drink of the fruit of the vine again until the kingdom. They sing a hymn and leave for the Mount of Olives (Matthew 26:29–30).
Scott Hahn reads that break as a Passover left unfinished. He takes the cup after supper as the cup of redemption, the one drunk after the meal. Paul calls the Church’s cup the cup of blessing, the name Jews gave that same cup (1 Corinthians 10:16). The last promise, “I will take you as my people,” still has its cup ahead. In the garden Jesus prays that this cup might pass (Matthew 26:39). The Gospels also call suffering itself a cup (Mark 10:38), so the garden prayer is not only about that last cup. The death he has just offered at the table is the suffering he accepts. On the cross he says, “I thirst.” John says the thirst fulfills Scripture, and Psalm 69:22 already gives the righteous man vinegar for his thirst. They lift sour wine to his mouth on a branch of hyssop. He drinks, and then he says, “It is finished” (John 19:28–30). Hyssop is the plant Israel used to put the lamb’s blood on the door (Exodus 12:22). Mark and Matthew say a reed. John, who tells the death as the hour of the lamb, names hyssop. The wine is the soldiers’ sour wine, not a cup carried down from the upper room. Hahn’s claim is that Jesus finishes, in that drink, the meal he would not close upstairs.
That reading is not a defined dogma. A first-century Passover may not have matched every later rule. What the Gospels do say is enough to tell an execution from a sacrifice. Rome crucified rebels. No temple priest offered Jesus on that hill, and an execution by itself is not a liturgy. A sacrifice is an offering to God. At Passover the lamb was slain and the household had to eat it that night. A death without the meal was not the feast (Exodus 12:8). Before any soldier touches him, Jesus speaks the words of offering: this is my body, given; this is my blood, poured out. The cross is where that offering happens in his flesh. Split the two, and the supper is a farewell and the cross is a punishment. Hold them together, and they are one Passover. Paul calls Christ our Passover lamb and tells the Church to keep the feast (1 Corinthians 5:7–8). The Mass is that feast. It does not stage a second execution. It gives the Church the lamb to eat.
Tradition and magisterium
The Council of Trent taught that by the consecration the whole substance of the bread is changed into the substance of Christ’s body and the whole substance of the wine into his blood, and that the Church fittingly calls this change transubstantiation. The word does not explain the mystery; it fences it. It says that what changes is what the thing most deeply is, while everything the senses can measure remains. Trent also defined that Christ is present whole and entire under each species, and that he remains present as long as the sacramental signs endure.
Vatican II called the Eucharist the source and summit of the whole Christian life, and Paul VI’s Mysterium Fidei defended the Real Presence against attempts to reduce it to a change of meaning or purpose. The Catechism refuses to let the three aspects of the mystery come apart: the Eucharist is sacrifice, communion, and abiding presence at once, and a Catholicism that keeps only one of the three has lost the doctrine.
Practice confesses the same faith. The Church reserves the sacrament for the sick and for adoration, genuflects before the tabernacle, purifies the vessels after Communion, and carries the Blessed Sacrament through the streets on Corpus Christi. None of that would be intelligible before a symbol, and no Christian body that regards the bread as ordinary has ever behaved that way.
“By the consecration the transubstantiation of the bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ is brought about. Under the consecrated species of bread and wine Christ himself, living and glorious, is present in a true, real,…”
Summary
“’Eat my flesh,’ [Jesus] says, ‘and drink my blood.’ The Lord supplies us with these intimate nutrients, he delivers over his flesh and pours out his blood, and nothing is lacking for the growth of his children”
Fathers
“I have no taste for corruptible food nor for the pleasures of this life. I desire the bread of God, which is the flesh of Jesus Christ, who was of the seed of David; and for drink I desire his blood, which is love incorruptible”
Fathers
History and development
The earliest Christians outside the New Testament already speak of the Eucharist as the flesh of Christ. Ignatius of Antioch, writing on his way to martyrdom around A.D. 107, complains of heretics who abstain from the Eucharist because they will not confess that it is the flesh of our Savior. Around A.D. 155 Justin Martyr explains to a pagan emperor that the food over which thanksgiving has been made is not received as common bread and common drink. This is the ordinary Christian assumption long before any council had to defend it.
The Middle Ages did not invent the doctrine; they argued about how to state it. Ninth-century debates between Radbertus and Ratramnus, and then the eleventh-century controversy over Berengarius of Tours, forced the Church to say how Christ can be genuinely present while the bread still behaves like bread. The Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 used the verb transubstantiated, and Aquinas supplied the careful account of substance and accidents that later theology relied on.
The sixteenth century split precisely here. Luther kept a real presence but rejected transubstantiation, Zwingli reduced the sacrament to a memorial, and Calvin taught a spiritual reception by faith. Trent answered in 1551 with definitions rather than novelties, and the doctrine has been restated since—by Paul VI against symbolic reinterpretations in 1965, and by John Paul II in Ecclesia de Eucharistia—each time pointing back to the same patristic witness.
“I have no taste for corruptible food nor for the pleasures of this life. I desire the bread of God, which is the flesh of Jesus Christ, who was of the seed of David; and for drink I desire his blood, which is love incorruptible”
“We call this food Eucharist, and no one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true and who has been washed in the washing which is for the remission of sins and for regeneration [i.e., has received baptism] and is thereby living as Christ enjoined. For not as common bread nor common drink do we receive these; but since Jesus Christ our Savior was made incarnate by the word of God and had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so too, as we have been taught, the food which has been made into the Eucharist by the Eucharistic prayer set down by him, and by the change of which our blood and flesh is nurtured, is both the flesh and the blood of that incarnated Jesus”
“He took from among creation that which is bread, and gave thanks, saying, ‘This is my body.’ The cup likewise, which is from among the creation to which we belong, he confessed to be his blood. He taught the new sacrifice of the new covenant, of which Malachi, one of the twelve [minor] prophets, had signified beforehand: ‘You do not do my will, says the Lord Almighty, and I will not accept a sacrifice at your hands. For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is glorified among the Gentiles, and in every place incense is offered to my name, and a pure sacrifice; for great is my name among the Gentiles, says the Lord Almighty’ [Mal. 1:10–11]. By these words he makes it plain that the former people will cease to make offerings to God; but that in every place sacrifice will be offered to him, and indeed, a pure one, for his name is glorified among the Gentiles”
“’Eat my flesh,’ [Jesus] says, ‘and drink my blood.’ The Lord supplies us with these intimate nutrients, he delivers over his flesh and pours out his blood, and nothing is lacking for the growth of his children”
Miracles and motives of credibility
The Real Presence is believed because Christ said so and the Church hands on that faith. Secondary signs—Eucharistic miracle claims such as Lanciano—may strengthen credibility when carefully examined, but they never replace John 6, the Last Supper, or the magisterial teaching of Trent and the Catechism.
For a long-form popular investigation of Eucharistic miracles alongside Fatima and Padre Pio, see Pints with Aquinas Episode 581 with Ethan Muse, then return to primary liturgical and dogmatic sources.
“Therefore whoever eats this bread or drinks the Lord’s cup in a way unworthy of the Lord will be guilty of the body and the blood of the Lord.”
Scripture
“As they were eating, Jesus took bread, gave thanks for it, and broke it. He gave to the disciples, and said, “Take, eat;”
Scripture
Mastery and practice
Say it in ordinary words: after the consecration, what looks like bread and wine is the Body and Blood of Christ. Transubstantiation names that change of what the thing is, while appearances remain. Then hold the three together—sacrifice, communion, abiding presence—because dropping one already damages the doctrine.
If someone says Jesus was only speaking symbolically, read John 6 with the walk-out, then 1 Corinthians 11:27–29. If someone says the Mass re-sacrifices Christ, distinguish making the one sacrifice present from killing him again. Hebrews is right about once-for-all: the Mass applies that once rather than adding a second Calvary. If someone says the cross was only Rome’s punishment, put the supper back in front of it. Jesus offers his body and blood at the table. On the cross he drinks sour wine and says it is finished. An execution has no meal. This sacrifice does.
- State the Real Presence clearly.
- Explain transubstantiation without burying people in jargon.
- Answer the “re-sacrifice” objection.
- Tell an execution from a sacrifice.
“I have no taste for corruptible food nor for the pleasures of this life. I desire the bread of God, which is the flesh of Jesus Christ, who was of the seed of David; and for drink I desire his blood, which is love incorruptible”
“Take note of those who hold heterodox opinions on the grace of Jesus Christ which has come to us, and see how contrary their opinions are to the mind of God. . . . They abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer because they do not confess that the Eucharist is the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ, flesh which suffered for our sins and which that Father, in his goodness, raised up again. They who deny the gift of God are perishing in their disputes”
A Baptist memorial view
Baptist
Many Baptists and other evangelicals hold that the Supper is a memorial meal. The bread and cup remind the church of the cross. They do not become Christ’s body and blood.
Opposing claim
“This is my body” is a figure of speech.
Jesus also says “I am the door” and “I am the vine.” On this reading, the Supper points to his death the way those sayings point to his person. John 6:63, “the flesh is of no avail,” is taken as Jesus’ own explanation that he was not speaking of literal eating.
Opposing claim
Christ’s body is in heaven, not on the table.
After the ascension, Christ is at the Father’s right hand. A body cannot be in heaven and in thousands of churches at once. The Baptist Faith and Message calls the Supper a symbolic act of obedience in which the church memorializes the Redeemer’s death and looks for his return.
- Baptist Faith and Message. Article VII, The Lord’s Supper (2000)
Catholic response
The memorial reading takes the hardest texts seriously, and it is right that the Supper remembers the cross. The difficulty is what Jesus and Paul add to memory. In John 6 Jesus says the bread he will give is his flesh, and when disciples leave he does not soften the saying. At the table he does not say “this signifies my body.” Paul says an unworthy reception is guilt against the body and blood of the Lord, which is an odd charge if the elements only remind.
A human body is in one place. The Church does not claim that Christ travels from heaven so the throne is empty. It claims that the risen Christ makes himself present by a change in the gifts, while the appearances of bread and wine remain. Ignatius, writing in the early second century, already calls the Eucharist the flesh of Christ. The full objection and reply are on the objections page.
A Lutheran real presence
Lutheran
Lutherans confess that Christ’s body and blood are truly present and distributed in the Supper. They reject transubstantiation, and they do not treat the Supper as a sacrifice offered by the priest.
Opposing claim
Christ is truly received, without a change of substance.
The Augsburg Confession says the body and blood of Christ are truly present and are distributed to those who eat the Supper, and it rejects those who teach otherwise. The Formula of Concord refuses transubstantiation and a crude, Capernaitic eating, and it still affirms the true presence.
Opposing claim
The Mass is not a propitiatory sacrifice.
For Lutherans, the Supper gives the one sacrifice of the cross. It does not offer Christ to the Father again through the ministry of a priest. The sacrifice, on this view, is the congregation’s thanksgiving, not the sacrament itself.
- Augsburg Confession. Article X, The Lord’s Supper
- Formula of Concord, Epitome. Article VII, The Lord’s Supper
Catholic response
Catholics and Lutherans are not arguing about whether Christ is received. Both say he is. The dispute is the mode of that presence, and whether the Church’s liturgy makes the one sacrifice present as an offering.
Catholics do not claim a second crucifixion. The Mass presents the same offering of Calvary under the signs of the Supper, so the Church can take part in it. Transubstantiation is the Church’s name for the change: the substance of bread and wine gives way to Christ, and the appearances remain. Lutherans judge that account an unnecessary philosophy. Catholics keep it because the Church has taught it, not because a Lutheran confession denies the gift.
A Reformed spiritual presence
Reformed
The Reformed confessions are not memorialist. They say worthy receivers really feed on Christ by faith, while the bread and wine remain bread and wine.
Opposing claim
The elements keep their substance.
The Westminster Confession says the bread and wine are sometimes called Christ’s body and blood because of their sacramental relation to him, yet in substance they remain bread and wine.
Opposing claim
The feeding is real, and it is spiritual.
Westminster says worthy receivers inwardly, by faith, really receive and feed upon Christ crucified — not carnally or corporally, but spiritually. Christ is received by the Spirit and by faith, not by placing his natural body inside the elements.
- Westminster Confession of Faith. Chapter 29, sections 5 and 7
Catholic response
This is a stronger objection than a bare symbol, and it should be stated that way. Reformed Christians affirm a real reception of Christ. They deny that the bread and wine change, and they locate the feeding in the faith of the worthy receiver.
The Catholic difficulty is the identity of the gift and the warning to the unworthy. Paul says the cup is a sharing in the blood of Christ, and that a person who eats or drinks without discerning the body eats and drinks judgment. That warning covers the unworthy, who are not feeding by a living faith. Catholics take the Church to be saying that Christ is present in the sacrament itself, not only in the faith of the person who receives well. The Council of Trent named the change of substance transubstantiation. The appearances remain. The reality received is Christ.
Common objections
Jesus was only speaking symbolically.
Read John 6 with the Last Supper and Paul together. Disciples walk away when Jesus insists on eating his flesh and drinking his blood—he even tightens the verbs to chewing, and he lets them go rather than say, “Relax, it’s a metaphor.” At the Supper he says, “This is my body.” Paul warns that unworthy communion is guilt against the body and blood of the Lord (1 Corinthians 11:27–29). Symbolism is in the sacrament; bare symbolism does not carry that weight. If it were only a vivid figure of speech, the scandal and the judgment language are theatrical overkill.
The Mass re-sacrifices Christ.
Catholic teaching says the one sacrifice of Calvary is made sacramentally present—not that Christ is killed again. Hebrews is right: the bloody death happened once. The Mass does not add a second execution; it applies the one sacrifice under the signs Christ gave. Re-presentation is not repetition of the Passion. The objection usually skips that distinction and then knocks down a position the Church does not hold. If Protestants can “proclaim the Lord’s death” at the table (1 Corinthians 11:26), Catholics can say the same death is truly present, not re-done. Put the same point in Passover terms. Rome’s cross, by itself, is an execution. Jesus has already offered his body and blood at the Passover table, and the lamb of that feast had to be eaten (Exodus 12:8). The Mass is the eating, not a second killing.
The senses show only bread and wine.
Doctrine agrees about appearances—what you see, taste, and chemically analyze still looks like bread and wine. The claim concerns what it is: Christ’s body and blood under those appearances. If only the senses settled metaphysics, the Incarnation, the Spirit, and half of Christian mystery would fail the same test. Faith is not anti-sense; it refuses to let sense be the only court. Jesus looked like an ordinary man, and that did not make him “only a man.”
Sources
Citations for this article. Browse the full bibliography to see every place each source is used across the library.
CCC 1374
Unique mode of Christ’s presence
The mode of Christ's presence under the Eucharistic species is unique. It raises the Eucharist above all the sacraments as "the perfection of the spiritual life and the end to which all the sacraments tend." In the most blessed sacrament of…
CCC 1374. Presence
CCC 1376
Transubstantiation
The Council of Trent summarizes the Catholic faith by declaring: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the conviction of the Church of God,…
CCC 1376. Change
CCC 1413
Summary of Eucharistic faith
By the consecration the transubstantiation of the bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ is brought about. Under the consecrated species of bread and wine Christ himself, living and glorious, is present in a true, real,…
CCC 1413. Summary
Council of Trent, Session XIII
Real Presence and transubstantiation.
Trent, Decree on the Eucharist. Dogmatic definitions.
Ignatius, Smyrnaeans 7
Early realist witness.
Ignatius of Antioch, Smyrnaeans 7. Anti-docetic Eucharist faith.
Aquinas, ST III.75
Conversion of bread and wine.
Summa Theologiae III, q. 75. Philosophical vocabulary.
Matthew 26:26-28
Scripture cited in this article
As they were eating, Jesus took bread, gave thanks for it, and broke it. He gave to the disciples, and said, “Take, eat;
Matthew 26:26-28. Scripture
1 Corinthians 10:16-17
Scripture cited in this article
The cup of blessing which we bless, isn’t it a sharing of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break,
1 Corinthians 10:16-17. Scripture
1 Corinthians 11:23-26
Scripture cited in this article
For I received from the Lord that which also I delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night in which he was betrayed took bread.
1 Corinthians 11:23-26. Scripture
1 Corinthians 11:27-29
Scripture cited in this article
Therefore whoever eats this bread or drinks the Lord’s cup in a way unworthy of the Lord will be guilty of the body and the blood of the Lord.
1 Corinthians 11:27-29. Scripture
Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Romans 7:3
Early Christian witness (Ignatius of Antioch)
I have no taste for corruptible food nor for the pleasures of this life. I desire the bread of God, which is the flesh of Jesus Christ, who was of the seed of David; and for drink I desire his blood, which is love incorruptible
Letter to the Romans 7:3 · A.D. 110 Fathers
Justin Martyr, First Apology 66
Early Christian witness (Justin Martyr)
Cited passage
We call this food Eucharist, and no one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true and who has been washed in the washing which is for the remission of sins and for regeneration [i.e., has received baptism] and is thereby living as Christ enjoined. For not as common bread nor…
First Apology 66 · A.D. 151 Fathers
Irenaeus, Against Heresies 4:17:5
Early Christian witness (Irenaeus)
Cited passage
He took from among creation that which is bread, and gave thanks, saying, ‘This is my body.’ The cup likewise, which is from among the creation to which we belong, he confessed to be his blood. He taught the new sacrifice of the new covenant, of which Malachi, one of the twelve [minor] prophets, had signified before…
Against Heresies 4:17:5 · A.D. 189 Fathers
Clement of Alexandria, The Instructor of Children 1:6:43:3
Early Christian witness (Clement of Alexandria)
’Eat my flesh,’ [Jesus] says, ‘and drink my blood.’ The Lord supplies us with these intimate nutrients, he delivers over his flesh and pours out his blood, and nothing is lacking for the growth of his children
The Instructor of Children 1:6:43:3 · A.D. 191 Fathers
Tertullian, The Resurrection of the Dead 8
Early Christian witness (Tertullian)
Cited passage
[T]here is not a soul that can at all procure salvation, except it believe whilst it is in the flesh, so true is it that the flesh is the very condition on which salvation hinges. And since the soul is, in consequence of its salvation, chosen to the service of God, it is the flesh which actually renders it capable o…
The Resurrection of the Dead 8 · A.D. 210 Fathers
Exodus 6:6-7
Four promises of the exodus.
Exodus 6:6-7. The promises later tied to the four cups.
Exodus 12:8, 22
The lamb is eaten; the blood is put on the door with hyssop.
Exodus 12:8, 22. Passover meal and hyssop.
John 19:28-30
Sour wine on hyssop, then “It is finished.”
John 19:28-30. The drink at the cross.
Psalm 69:22
Vinegar given for thirst.
Psalm 69:22. The scripture John says the thirst fulfills.
Mishnah Pesahim 10:1
Four cups of wine at the Passover meal.
Mishnah, Pesahim 10:1. Written down about A.D. 200.
Scott Hahn, The Fourth Cup
The supper and the cross read as one Passover.
Scott Hahn, The Fourth Cup: Unveiling the Mystery of the Last Supper and the Cross (Image, 2018). A theologian’s reading, not a council definition.
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fourth-cupThe supper and the cross
Added the Passover cups, the hyssop at the cross, and the difference between an execution and a sacrifice.
Apologia Catholic · Oct 4, 2026, 3:00 PM UTCmodern-apologetics-2025Update arguments to current Catholic apologetics
Sharpened John 6 with the stronger eating language used in current Eucharistic apologetics.
Apologia Catholic · Aug 22, 2026, 8:24 PM UTCvoice-3Join choppy sentences
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Apologia Catholic · Aug 17, 2026, 9:11 PM UTCvoice-2Connected teaching voice
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Apologia Catholic · Jul 15, 2026, 10:37 PM UTCImage credits
- Caravaggio, Supper at EmmausCaravaggio — public domain, Wikimedia Commons
- Van Eyck, Adoration of the Mystic Lamb (Ghent Altarpiece)Jan van Eyck — public domain, Wikimedia Commons